Table of Contents
Captions to the plates
Plate I
(a)
Tower of London moat, City of London, UK (Trench 27, Section 2702), which was open to the tidal River Thames. This part of the moat was associated with a short-lived new barbican that has dendrochronological dates of beech piling of AD 1240/41 built by Henry III and silting continued into the reign of Edward I – AD ; photo shows easy undisturbed monolith sampling of soft sediment with 40cm-long lengths of plastic downpipe for a series of thin section studies, complemented by 9 bulk sample analyses (particle size, LOI, CaCO3, pH, phosphate, specific conductance (salinity), magnetic susceptibility ( 𝜒 ,𝜒max and %𝜒conv ), heavy metals (Pb, Zn and Cu) and a sulphate content estimate. Low energy sediments are fine textured and vary between silty clay loams (ZyCL), silt loams (ZL), clays (c), and silty clays (ZyC). The initial silting was affected by mixing with the natural geological substrate (London Clay) that was also studied, and which contains pyrite, pyritised wood and gypsum. Sediments are calcareous, saline and contain much gypsum, with shell, fine charcoal, and become muddier, humic, phosphate- and heavy metal-rich in the post-medieval deposits when direct access to the Thames had been cut off (Keevil, 2004; Macphail and Crowther, 2004).
(b)
Boxgrove (Quarry 1A), West Sussex, UK; 2km-long Middle Pleistocene and Lower Palaeolithic coastal site. Field photograph of the sampling of a calcareous small <100m size pond/spring sap feature, employed as a waterhole by animals such as the lion, spotted hyaena, wolf, extinct cave bear, elephant, horse and extinct rhinocerous (Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis). Hominins (Homo heidelbergensis) and their activity are represented by a tibia (Unit 8ac, chalky gravel layer – ChG), two incisors (Unit 4) and a high number of large bifacial tools – hand axes – and butchered bone. The spring eroded marine deposits down to the beach sands of Unit 3, and the highly calcareous freshwater interglacial pond deposits (e.g. Units 4*, 4 and 4d1) include both marine fossils (derived from eroded Units 3, 4a and 4b) and terrestrial slug plates and earthworm granules; root pseudomorphs also occur. The chalk gravels of Unit 8ac likely represent increased energy cool climate inwash, associated with the chalk pellet gravel (Unit 8) found across the site. The tibia and tibia fragments show tooth marks consistent with being scavenged by carnivores. Probable coprolitic bone fragments also occur within the pond sediments.
(c)
Huizui, Yiluo Region, Henan Province, North China; flatbed scan of 14cm-long resin-impregnated block (M19) that sampled a Middle Neolithic/ Yangshao F1 construction layers 05HYEHF1on the Loess Plateau (Liu et al., 2002-2004); sequence is composed of: Layer 7 – adobe ground-raising deposits (AGR) and plant-tempered adobe preparation surface (APS), Layer 8 – a series of fossiliferous tufa floor layer(s) (TFL), with tufa slabs or slab showing natural horizontal splitting, and Layer 9 – burned daub (adobe) debris (BDD). Originally, tufa floors (see Plates Id and Ie) were identified as lime plaster floors but this was incompatible with the soil micromorphology chemistry and magnetic susceptibility (Macphail and Crowther, 2007). Scale bar=20mm.
(d)
Huizui, Yiluo Region, Henan Province, North China; photomicrograph of M18A, constructed tufa floor Layer 6b, showing plant pseudomorphs (roots) and fossil remains formed by sparite (calcite) set in an impure micritic and microsparitic matrix (tufa) containing silt-size quartz (loess). Root channels have been partially infilled with secondary microsparitic and micritic calcite (Cal). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar =1mm.
(e)
As Plate Id, under crossed polarised light (XPL), showing high interference colours of sparitic and microsparitic calcite compared to micritic matrix which is also weakly humic stained.
(f)
Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire, UK; Iron Age and Romano-British experimental settlement (Old Demonstration Area late 1980s). View of manured arable field, and ditch and fence enclosing the settlement composed of one large domestic roundhouse (Pimperne House), small roundhouses used for storage and animal byres/stables (such as the Moel-y-Gar house), other structures and animal pens. In foreground are Anne Gebhardt and Mike Allen taking soil samples (Gebhardt, 1990, 1992). (See also Plates Xe-g)
Plate II
(a)
Camp Lemonier, Djibouti; historic and recent sheetwash sediments resulting from flash floods affecting the coastal plain, showing poorly sorted sands (Table 2.1) and gravels and upward-fining fine sands and muddy pans (orange arrows) indicative of short-lived ponding. Eroded volcanic hills inland supply sand to gravel-size basalt clasts (B), with heavy minerals such as magnetite forming gravity concentrations (e.g. blue arrows; see Plate II.d). Scale bar=10mm.
(b)
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania (Bed II); East African Early Stone Age 1.7-1.6 million year old hominin site (de la Torre et al., 2011-2012). Digital flatbed scan of bedded fine sands and thin tufa formation episodes (blue arrows). Possible weathered surface in carbonate cemented sands is located (white arrow; possible activity by cyanobacteria/algae?). Probable fluvial sands include black magnetite of volcanic rock origin, and occasional weathered fragments of basalt occur (red arrow). Sediments also include coarse sand to fine gravel-size clasts of yellow clay of lacustrine and/or overbank alluvial origin – some probably from diamigtites. Scale bar=10mm. © OGAP (Olduvai Geochronology Archaeology Project) and Richard I Macphail.
(c)
As Plate IIa; photomicrograph of poorly sorted fine to coarse sands (Table 2.1) including a sandy pan – gravity concentration of fine sand-size heavy minerals (magnetite; Fe3O4) which are opaque (PPL) and metallic black (Oblique incident light). Magnetite, which has an igneous rock origin is classed as a heavy mineral because its specific gravity is >4.5 (s.g. of magnetite=~5.2). The mineral is also naturally magnetic giving soils and sediments a naturally high magnetic susceptibility. Oblique incident light (OIL). Scale bar=1mm.
(d)
As Plate IIb, Photomicrograph of TPL10 52B, tufa embedding a basalt cleaver. Tufa has also embedded a possible coprolitic bone fragment, with relict traces of iron staining. Bone, which is autofluorescent under BL, appears to be rounded and its birefringence pattern is only patchily preserved. Cloudy grey tufa has invaded large pores within the bone fragment. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm. © OGAP (Olduvai Geochronology Archaeology Project) and Richard I Macphail.
(e)
Hyena Den, Wookey Hole, Somerset, UK; Middle Palaeolithic limestone cave (Carboniferous Limestone), characterised by hyena remains, including coprolites; example of mineralised coprolite, but not necessarily a hyena coprolite – possibly of a canid, because of its grey colour (see Plates IIf and IIg). Channels possibly pseudomorphic of ingested fur follicles, are arrowed. Cave sediment includes reddish clayey intercalations typical of mass-movement mud-flow deposits in caves. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(f)
As Plate IIe, under XPL; both the coprolite (c) and voids (v) are isotropic. Matrix intercalations show high interference colours and aligned clay around coprolite indicate that it is an ‘embedded grain’ typical of mud flow deposits. Scale bar=0.5mm.
(g)
As Plate IIe, under blue light (BL). Coprolite is autofluorescent because of its likely carbonate hydroxyapatite chemistry; the void which is also isotropic under XPL is non-autofluorescent. Scale bar=0.5mm.
(h)
Boxgrove, West Sussex, UK; Middle Pleistocene and Lower Palaeolithic coastal site. Photomicrograph of flint flake within in situ knapping scatter located in the marine/estuarine mud flat sediments of Unit 4b (sampled by Mark Roberts at horse butchery site GTP 17). Flint, with a cryptocrystalline silicate mineralogy has a 1st order birefringence. It occurs within laminated calcitic (chalky) muds and mainly coarse quartzitic silts. The laminated sediments are typical of mud flats (see Plates VIIIa-c) and after knapping and butchering activity at low tide, the site was sealed by sediments brought in by the next tide. Cross polarised light (XPL). Scale bar=1mm.
Plate III
(a)
Stanford Wharf, Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, on the River Thames estuary; microprobe map of the distribution of iron (Fe) in a ‘green glaze’ ceramic associated with Late Roman salt making (probable bellow. Some voids – small arrows – are channels pseudomorphic of plant tempering (see Fig 2.3). Although some voids and fissures show iron hypocoatings, it is the ‘green glaze’ surface that is dominantly iron rich. Large arrow is Way-Up. Scale bar=1mm.
(b)
As Plate IIIa, showing mapped and quantitative line analysis for sodium (Na) which is concentrated on the surface ‘green glaze’ (small arrows; see Fig 2.8). Statistical analysis on quantitative line analysis data using Mann-Whitney U tests, found that compared with the briquetage, the glaze contains significantly (p < 0.05) higher concentrations of Fe, P, Na and S. Large arrow is Way-Up. Scale bar=1mm. (see also Plates VIIIe-g)
(c)
Boxgrove, West Sussex, UK; Lower Palaeolithic pond deposits in Quarry 1B (see Plate Ib); hand collected slug plate composed of mainly coarse sparitic biogenic calcite indicative of terrestrial environment surrounding the pond. Reference slug plates kindly supplied by Simon Parfitt (Roberts and Parfitt, 1999; Roberts et al., Forthcoming). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(d)
As Plate IIIc, under crossed polarised light (XPL). Note areas of 3rd order birefringence.
(e)
As Plate IIIc; but here earthworm granules are composed of concentric sparitic biogenic calcite. Photomicrograph shows various cross-sections, some showing this concentric pattern better than others. Counts of earthworm granules in soils have been carried out in other palaeosols and modern studies (Armour-Chelu and Andrews, 1994; Canti, 1998; Preece et al., 1995), and their state of preservation is a useful soil weathering/maturity indicator in dark earth for example (Macphail, 2010b). Scale bar =0.5mm.
(f)
As Plate IIIe, under crossed polarised light (XPL).
Plate IV
(a)
Stainton West (CNDR), Carlisle, Cumbria, UK; flatbed scan of M70241B (70315, Palaeochannel Bay D); example of humic (7.15-17.4% LOI) Mesolithic and Neolithic palaeochannel fills of River Eden (Macphail and Crowther, 2013). This woody peat includes coarse wood and wood bark fragments (WB) and probable unburned hazel nut shells (HN) – note example of typical perforations in hazel nut shell (Karin Viklund, pers. comm.); circular plant inclusions could be fragments of tree buds (see Plate IVb). Scale bar=10mm.
(b)
As Plate IVa: photomicrograph of M70255B (Palaeochannel Bay F), Context 70323; a section through a broadleaved tree leaf bud. Note curved packed leaf layers, which occur as fragments within the palaeochannel deposits (Elizabeth Huckerby and Denise Druce, pers. comm.). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(c)
Huizui (Loess Plateau of Northern China), Henan Province; Longshan (Late Neolithic) ash pit 05HYEH3; flatbed scan of thin section 31A, which illustrates an example of ash pit filling by finely laminated waterlaid deposits (WL) and two intervening sequences of dumps where the ashy fill has been burrowed (B1 and B2). In this example probably five layers could be characterised: the microlaminated deposits show internal homogeneity between fine layers (see Plates IVd-g), while the burrowed parts show some heterogeneity. There is fine fissuring running vertically through the deposit, which sometimes link with fine channels; there is also a chamber containing a loose infill of excrements (Ch). Scale bar=10mm.
(d)
As Plate IVc, photomicrograph of M31A (Longshan ash pit) – including probable waterlaid laminated deposits. There is a massive ash layer (MA), overlain by microlaminated articulated phytoliths (AP) of presumed dumped matter/plant processing origin, above which are laminated humic deposits (LH) including horizontally oriented thin charcoal. EDS found the ash layer to have 56.0% CaO, with the phytoliths recording 42.7% SiO2; amorphous yellow inclusions (not illustrated), which are assumed to be mineralised latrine waste are composed of 17.4-17.8% P2O5 and 38.3-40.2% CaO. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(e)
As Plate IVd, under crossed polarised light (XPL), with the massive ash layer and patchy ashes showing up with moderately low interference colours; phytoliths are isotropic. Note presence of loessic silt-size quartz. Scale bar=1mm.
(f)
As Plate IVd, under oblique incident light (OIL); massive ash (MA) is yellowish and white – probably weakly iron-stained, articulated phytoliths (AP) are typically white and colourless and the laminated humic layer (LH) is brown with blackish and brownish horizontal plant fragments – and partially iron-stained (4.44% FeO). Scale bar=1mm.
(g)
Detail of Plate IVd, focussing on a compact layer of horizontally oriented articulated probable rice leaf and stem phytoliths. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
Plate V
(a)
Overton Down Experimental Earthwork, Wiltshire, UK, 1992 monitoring excavation (Bell et al., 1996); optical counts of modern control profile outside enclosed experimental bank and open to grazing (thin section 15). The uppermost 80mm of the shallow (range 150-220mm) A1h Mull humus horizon of a chalk Rendzina (Rendoll) shows that it is dominated by decalcified soil, with roots (‘organs’) and other plant remains (‘tissues’) increasing towards the surface where a very open porosity is recorded; very thin (‘micro’) and thin (‘meso’ to ‘>500µm’) excrements are dominant (Crowther et al., 1996).
(b)
As Plate Va; optical counts of turf-bank buried soil after 32 years (thin sections 172 and 173), at depths of +50mm to -90mm, and showing location of Old Land Surface and total dominance of decalcified soil. Of particular note are a marked decrease in void space and type compared to unburied control soils (14% voids compared to 55% voids at the same soil depth; spongy void pattern compared to packing voids) , and a change from mainly individual very thin to thin and broad organo-mineral excrements to very dominantly aggregated excrements. Plant residues are almost absent apart from fragmented root traces.
(c)
As Plate Va; photomicrograph of thin section 15, at 15mm depth, illustrating very open compound packing porosity, a concentration of living grass roots (LGR)(organs), below which are mainly fragmented roots and other plant residues. This is a total excremental microfabric, with very thin (organic), thin and occasional broad organo-mineral excrements (max. ~1mm); down-profile, broad 1-2mm+ organo-mineral mammilated excrements of earthworms are dominant. Scale bar=2mm.
(d)
As Plate Va; photomicrograph of turf-bank buried soil after 32 years (thin section 172), with oak charcoal (centre) scattered across the soil surface in 1960, which is now a highly diffuse bioworked boundary. No grass litter or roots occur, apart from rare traces. As noted in Plate Vb, the microfabric is aggregated with spongy areas (Sp) where small acidophyle invertebrate mesofauna have burrowed the ‘welded’ earthworm excrement-dominated soil. Organic C in the buried soil has declined from 11.0% (control soils) to 7.59%’; they have also have developed a lower pH (from 6.4-7.5 to 5.6). Also illustrated are fine iron-manganese nodules (FeMn) that were absent in thin section 15. These nodules result from localised anaerobic conditions and the breakdown of organic inclusions by microflora (Kelly and Wiltshire, 1996). Scale bar=1mm.
(e)
Overton Down Experimental Earthwork, Wiltshire, UK, 1992 monitoring excavation after 32 years (Bell et al., 1996); photomicrograph of chalk bank-buried thin section sample 101, with compact aggregated buried soil, where elements of the original decalcified soil (DS), chalk (c), chalky soil (CS) and calcitic soil (CaS) have become welded together in part due to compaction (see Plate Vf). Here, post-burial mixing between the buried soil and overlying chalk bank has raised the pH to pH 7.9. As in the turf-buried soil localised anaerobism led to fine impregnative iron-manganese nodule formation. Plane polarised light (PPL), Scale bar=1mm.
(f)
As Plate Ve, under crossed polarised light (XPL); decalcified soil is non-birefringent (with a undifferentiated b-fabric) apart from its coarse inclusions – mainly silt and fine sand-size quartz – whereas the chalky and calcitic soil areas have moderately high to high interference colours because of calcite producing a crystallitic b-fabric.
Plate VI
(a)
Hengistbury Head, Hampshire, UK; photomicrograph of a 20mm-thick Mor humus (H) horizon of a bank-buried gley podzol, and is composed of amorphous organic matter, with very few included sand grains and relict fine roots. This Mor humus has an uncalibrated 3,350±90 BP date (ca. Late Bronze Age/Early Iron Age) and is dominated by oak, with birch, hazel and alder pollen, showing that this podzol developed under broadleaved woodland (Scaife, 1992). Note thin burrows and associated organic excrements. Plane polarized light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(b)
Hørdalsåsen, Sandefjord commune, Vestfold, Norway (see Fig 11.13); Iron Age to Migration Period occupation. Photomicrograph of M2510251B (Profile 4510038); typical Bhs horizon soil, with polymorphic (pellety) fine fabric; monomorphic coatings on the siltstone rock fragment appear to becoming fragmented, perhaps due to disturbance (clearances for field system probably took place as early as cal BC 398-236) (Mjærum, 2012). EDS analysis on this Bhs horizon found the following: polymorphic and monomorphic fabric: 19.5% Al, 36.8% Al2O3, 18.5% Fe, 23.4% FeO, 1.88% P and 0.73% S, mean values (n=8); polymorphic fabric is more rich in Al (20.4%), P (2.00%) and S 0.68%), compared to monomorphic fabric (16.9% Al, 1.62% P, 0.50% S); Fe content is the same for both microfabric types. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(c)
Pilgrims’ School, Winchester, UK, borehole through palaeochannel of River Itchen. Photomicrograph of M3I (BH1: Context 3011); amorphous, humified peat (66.7% LOI) with long monocotyledonous fragments, dating to 6,142±82 BC. PPL, frame width is ~4.62mm.
(d)
As Plate VIc, Context 1312; M13H (Borehole 13, 2.665-2.680m depth), non-calcareous totally bioworked humic Mor horizon formed in humified peat, as the site became wooded and recording a hydroseral sequence of drying out of peat and woodland Mor humus formation (C14 uncalibrated C14 date of 4278±55 BC; LOI=38.1%; P=1.67 mg g-1 (0.167% P). PPL, frame width is ~4.62mm. (cf. Plate VIa)
(e)
Fryasletta, River Lågan; Gudbrandsdalen Valley E6 Road Project, Oppland, Norway; flatbed scan of M42A (see Figs 5.3-5.5), with sandy upper 1152a containing an example of twigwood charcoal (arrow) and showing relict silt loam layering. 1150 is composed of brown silt loam and a concentrated layer of wood charcoal and wood char – broadly dating to the Bronze Age (uncalib. 3218±41 BP and uncalib. 3599±50 BP; Ingar Gundersen, pers. comm.; (Gundersen, Forthcoming)). ‘1151b’ is an upward extension of silt loam deposition associated with 1150 ponding (see Table 5.1c for palynology). Overlying 1151a is an erosive poorly sorted sand and gravel alluvium. Frame width is ~50mm.
(f)
Fryasletta: Photomicrograph of M9A (1150); biomixed layers 1150 (charcoal and wood char) and uppermost 1152a (silt loam). 1150 includes an abundance of coloured carbonaceous filaments and vitreous char (Marie-Agnès Courty in (Macphail et al., Forthcoming). There is no evidence of in situ burning, and the pale reddish silt loam is not rubefied, only iron-stained (EDS found: Fe=5.92-7.06%; Mn=0.0-0.71%). Plane polarised light (PPL), Scale bar=10mm.
(g)
Fryasletta: Photomicrograph of M9B; 1150 silt loam infill affecting sands and gravels of 1153, contains orange coloured (rubefied) burnt bone and fine charcoal, plausibly resulting from wildfire effects on riverside small carnivore scat. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
Plate VII
(a)
Chongokni, Republic of Korea on the Hantan River (see Fig 5.11); soil micromorphology on thirty-three thin sections and other techniques was carried out at several sites along the Imjin River and at Chongokni on the Hantan River, where Upper Palaeolithic cultures were focused that produced Acheulian-like hand axes (S. Yi, pers. comm.). Field photo of trench CGN NW 6, showing full geological sequence: ‘Lacustrine Clays’ (LC) overlying from basalt flow, ‘Clastic Sands’ (CS), ‘Yellow Sands’ (YS), ‘Yellow Silts’ (YZ), ‘Yellow Red Clay’ (YRC), the artefact-bearing ‘Red Clay’ (RC), which includes haematite and the overlying ‘Reddish Brown Clay’ (RBC). (See Box 5.3)
(b)
Chongokni; photomicrograph of M28; thin soil immediately below quartzite core (see Fig 5.16). The biologically homogenised ‘entisol’ seems to have formed in months(?) after wet season fluvial deposition of bedded silty clay (Bsed), and before/contemporary with ‘dropped’ quartzite core. XRD analysis indicates that the red colours are the result of haematite iron (Fe2O3) formation. The soil also includes the ferruginised remains of a root (arrow) testifying to the soil becoming vegetated. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
(c)
Blackwater River estuary, Essex, UK. Neolithic ‘The Stumble’, where estuarine mudflat sediments bury the prehistoric terrestrial landscape. Photomicrograph of ‘subsoil’ (300–370 mm below marine sediments) where probable original soil porosity was infilled with translocated yellow clay and very fine silt, resulting in a 29–34% clay content. This can be compared to the upper, slaked soil which has 10% clay. Dark colouration of the matrix is related to iron-staining. This clay deposition implies down-profile drainage, and thus that the site was flooded from the surface. It also suggests the soil was sufficiently affected by saline salts to allow soil dispersion. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(d)
Colour Fig 6.5: Boxgrove, West Sussex, UK; Middle Pleistocene, Lower Palaeolithic site. Digital flatbed scan of thin section (M3A) from borehole BH5 (see Fig 6.5). This is the middle part of 100 mm-thick Unit 5a, showing soft sediment compaction (boudinage) in the upper half. Note a middle layer rich in coarse wood charcoal and other included plant material. Unlike the typical Unit 5a at Boxgrove, which is normally only a 10mm-thick ‘ironpan’ layer. At BH5 Unit 5a is much thicker and organic matter is unusually well-preserved and little affected by ferruginisation. Scale bar=10mm.
(e)
Kirkhill Quarry, Buchan, Scotland, UK. A little-studied palaeosol supposedly dating to the junction between Hoxnian and Ipswichian sediment deposition, sampled by John CC Romans. This palaeosol was reported to be a ‘podzol’ but was more accurately described as a gley/organic mud by Romans (Connell and Romans, 1984), Romans, pers. comm.). Photomicrograph of sample 3.624.5-3.632.1m, showing generally iron-depleted gley soil, with an anomalous concentration of coarse charcoal. The soil is also characterised by a concentration of fungal spores (F): tentatively Papulospora, a fungi of soil and rotting plant remains (David L. Hawksworth, pers. comm.). Plane polarized light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
Plate VIII
(a upper)
Wallasea Island on the River Crouch, Essex, UK, in 2009. Field photograph of newly (since 2006) flooded areas of arable and grassland within breached sea walls. Pit 3 (FG3) is located on grassland adjacent to the ‘borrow’ ditch; River Crouch in background (Macphail, 2009)fig 2).
(a lower)
Field photo of seaweed-covered estuarine mudflat sediments over grassland soil profile (Pit 3). Borrow ditch, flooded arable fields and 2006 DEFRA breached sea wall in background.
(b left)
As Plate VIIIa. Digital flatbed scan of resin-embedded sample. Control Grassland Pit 4 (CG4): ~16 cm-long block conserving the humic Ah horizon, a mixed/dumped Ahg/Bg1 (from ditch cleaning), a buried ‘surface’ (arrow), and buried bAhg/Bg1 horizon. Mottling and blackened organic matter reflect the low elevation/wet environment at this location (Macphail, 2009, fig 3).
(b right)
As Plate VIIIa, digital flatbed scan of resin-embedded sample. Flooded Grassland Pit 3 (FG3): ~11 cm-long block showing a current surface of algae- (A) coated estuarine clay laminae (Est) which bury the original Ahg and Bg horizons.
(c)
As Plates VIIIa and VIIIb right). Microprobe maps of flooded Grassland Pit 3 (FG3), thin section M5A1 (junction of buried Ahg horizon and overlying estuarine mudflat laminae). These maps show the distribution of: Si (upper left), Ca (upper right), Na (lower left) which occurs both as saline (NaCl) salts and as sodium carbonate; and Cl (Lower right). These maps demonstrate estuarine sedimentation of saline calcareous silts. Width of thin section is ~50 mm; scale bar=10mm. (maps by Kevin Reeves, Institute of Archaeology, UCL) (Macphail, 2009, fig 4). (see also Plate IIIb)
Plate IX
(a)
Whittington Ave., City of London, UK; 1st Century AD Roman levels. Field photograph locating 80mm-long thin section samples A and B. 1: remains of ca. AD 50 brickearth construction slab; 2: Post-Boudiccan revolt (ca. AD 60) soil, including many fine burnt brickearth clay fragments and charcoal – relict of Boudiccaan destruction; 3: later ground-raising with brickearth sealing probably dark midden and latrine spreads. Soil-infilled grooves in brickearth (arrows) are regular; ca. 0.5 m long, 80-200mm wide and 60-200 mm deep. They also have a dark lining between the soil (2) and the brickearth slab (1); thin section B sampled the lower junction of the soil and underlying brickearth slab (see Plate IXb). The soil, with finely fragmented anthropogenic inclusions, is interpreted as resulting from short-lived urban horticulture following the disruption caused by the Boudiccaan revolt. It was created by double-digging, and lining the spade-cut trench with manure (N. Fedoroff, pers. comm.).
(b)
As Plate IXa, Digital flatbed scan of thin section sample B, across a spade-cut trench into brickearth (see Plate IXa). The image records, 1a: intact brickearth slab material, 1b: fragmented (spade-disturbed?) brickearth, 2: presumed spade-cultivated soil, composed of bioworked fragmented brickearth, burnt brickearth (wall material) and charcoal. The base of the trench was lined with organic matter. Note possible spade mark between 1a and 1b. Scale bar=10mm.
(c)
Borduşani-Popină, Borcea River, Romania (near River Danube) (Box 11.1); a Chalcolithic Gumelniţa culture (~4500 cal BC) tell site. Photomicrograph of M15C (see Figs 7.3-7.4) showing a marked concentration of fish bone and unknown yellow material, both of which are highly autofluorescent under blue light (BL). This is a presumed fish processing deposit (fish bones from freshwater pond fish such as carp are common at the site; (Popovici et al., 2003)). There is also much reddish amorphous material and bone staining; other butchery deposits can show reddish stained bone remains (cf. Late Roman London Guildhall (Macphail, 2010b). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(d)
E18 (Lok 11), Åmot øvre, Stokke Komune, Vestfold, Norway. Iron Age long house refuse included a fragment of fused ‘burned clay’. Photomicrograph of amorphous glass phase silicate, indicating furnace temperatures of up to 1300°C (FTIR by F. Berna, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, Canada). Scale bar=200µm.
(e)
London Guildhall (GYE), London: Early Medieval (AD 1050-1140) house demolition deposits. Photomicrograph of leather fragment (leather was preserved as a large fragment within these semi-waterlogged levels). Leather, here and at Viking Heimsdaljordet, is often fissured and can show pores. It is dull reddish, isotropic under crossed polarised light (XPL), and very dark brown to black under oblique incident light (OIL). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(f)
El Morro de Arica, Chile; Chinchorro tradition mummy site. Photomicrograph of intestinal contents of Mummy TU54 (supplied by Tim Holden). Contents are predominantly composed of whole (arrow) or fragmented quinoa seeds; leached bone fragments also occur rarely (see Fig 7.13). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(g)
Hyena Den, Wookey Hole, Somerset, UK; Middle Palaeolithic limestone cave (Carboniferous Limestone), characterised by hyena remains. Photomicrograph of burnt bone (BB) and hyena coprolite fragments (c) in reddish cave earth. The blackened area of bone is now non-birefringent under XPL. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm. (see also Plates IIe-g)
(h)
As Plate IXg, under blue light (BL). The most strongly autofluorescent material is silt- to sand-size hyena coprolite fragments. The most strongly burnt (‘blackened’) bone is non-autofluorescent under blue light. Scale bar=200µm.
(i)
Colour Fig. 8.1: Uzzo Cave, Sicilly, Italy; Mesolithic occupied cave, with overlying Neolithic deposits. Digital flatbed scan of thin section showing the sloping junction between the Mesolithic cave soil (Meso) and overlying ash and charcoal-rich Neolithic deposits (Neo). The lower fill is composed of reddish cave earth (including terra rossa fragments), with small amounts of ash, burnt bone, and probable bird guano. Shellfish were gathered seasonally and cave fauna probably turbated the soil in between occupations. The Early Neolithic deposits are layered spreads that are far more anthropogenic in character – ash and charcoal-rich. The cave supposedly records a Mesolithic-Neolithic Transition, but here there is a clear hiatus. Scale bar=10mm.
Plate X
(a)
Hazleton long cairn, Gloucestershire, UK; Neolithic long cairn (c) constructed of Oolitic Limestone and marl. Field photo of section through buried soil – a tree-throw subsoil feature, with few mollusks suggesting an Atlantic Period woodland event. Tree-throw was to the right, pushing and rotating subsoil marl (M) and Oolitic Limestone (L) to the left. 130mm-long thin section 1 samples the buried decalcified and biologically homogenised topsoil and calcareous marl junction (1); thin section 2 examined the turbated subsoil fill (2), which records tree-throw disruption and inwash of unstable subsoil (see Plate Xb). Scale is a 300mm-long ruler.
(b)
As Plate Xa, photomicrograph of thin section sample 2. Here rain(?)-slaked subsoil has washed into the tree-throw hollow forming fine matrix intercalations and curved microlaminated dusty clay void infills. Here, these textural pedofeatures are the result of disturbance rather than ‘lessivage’ sensu stricto. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200mm.
(c)
Raunds, Nene River Valley, Northamptonshire, UK; machine excavated remains of old land surface and tree-throw subsoil features below >1m of alluvial soils and alluvium. The same excavation revealed many tree-throw features including two nearby tree throw holes also studied by soil micromorphology which have 4350-3990 cal BC and 3700-3100 cal BC dates based on wood charcoal embedded within burnt soil. Hypothetically, large trees were blown over by a storm or purposely ring barked and pulled over when dead, then the tree stump(?) was burnt in situ. Burning produced burnt soil with strongly enhanced magnetic susceptibility (max 𝜒=894 x 10-8 m³ kg-1) and charcoal. Tree-throw has up-thrown soil to the left, producing a central fill (CF) and sands and loamy subsoil; more humic soil (H) has infilled a hollow of disturbed topsoil and sandy loam subsoil (see Plate Xd). Samples were also taken from between other tree-throw hollow disturbed soils (TH) as control samples (CS). Kubiena boxes are 80mm long.
(d)
As Plate Xc, photomicrograph of burnt soil found in tree-throw hollows. The reddish hue of the interference colours is the result of heating and rubefication – formation of haematite. Dusty clay void coatings, which are the result of tree-throw turbation are also rubefied testifying to soil disturbance ahead of burning. The arrow points to an iron-manganese void hypocoating, which is a post-depositional hydromorphic feature formed by alluvial flooding of the site and associated base level rise. Crossed polarised light (XPL). Scale bar=0.5mm. (Original photo by Rob Kemp).
(e)
Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire, UK; Iron Age and Romano-British experimental settlement (see Plate If and XVd). Digital flatbed scan of Moel-y-gar byre (1977-1990) showing: 1) 30mm-thick stabling floor crust of compacted horizontally oriented grass stems and amorphous organic matter, 2) 40mm-thick calcareous earth and chalk floor construction and 3) 60mm-thick buried in situ calcareous colluvial soil (Table 10.2). In Layer 1 (LOI=40.9%; P=5960ppm/~0.60%P), the calcium phosphate-cemented crust was mapped and quantitatively analysed by microprobe. XRF identified hydroxyapatite here, which is blue light autofluorescent; neoformed calcite is also present and an unexpectedly high concentrations of pollen occur, especially grass pollen. Layer 2 (LOI=32.3%; P=2840ppm/~0.28%P) includes partially phosphatised (‘stained’) chalk clasts (SC), which have blue light autofluorescent and isotropic margins, and charcoal (Ch). Partial phosphatisation (‘staining’) of the chalky soil is also evident in Layer 3 (LOI=22.8%; P=1460ppm/~0.15%P). Scale bar=10mm.
(f)
As Plate Xe, central floor area, near oven, of large domestic Pimperne roundhouse. Digital flatbed scan of beaten floor: 1) 30mm-thick massive (although vertically fissured now) diffusely layered trampled/beaten floor including lenses of charcoal and burnt mineral material (from oven?)(LOI=20.2%; P=2430ppm/~0.24%P), 2) 40mm-thick subangular blocky compacted uppermost buried soil, and 3) crumbs and fine blocky buried soil. In Layers 2 and 3, LOI=19.2%, P=2310ppm/0.23%P. Scale bar=10mm.
(g)
As Plate Xe, digital flatbed scan of matted entrance to the Pimperne domestic roundhouse. Layer 1, is a partially biologically worked, once massive, beaten floor deposit. A woven mat (mat) composed of palm fibres (phytolith identification, L. Vrydaghs, pers. comm.) laid on sub-unit 1b was buried by the additional deposition of muddy trample (1a). The buried soil (2) is fragmented, possibly by the impact of trampling. Archaeological analogues indicate that ancient matted surfaces are preserved as horizontal fissures and/or by long articulated phytoliths and/or humic stained laminae. Scale bar=10mm.
Plate XI
(a)
Vallum Ditch, Hadrian’s Wall near Knockupworth, Carlisle, Cumbria, UK; flatbed scan of M51023A (Context 50126 middle) showing intact soil fill of Vallum Ditch supposedly of AD 122 turf wall origin – the original turf wall was replaced by a masonry wall. 0.400 m of layered turf fill was studied using 2 x 75mm-long thin sections and three bulk samples. Illustrated here is a digital flatbed scan of an inverted turf (arrows) composed of a progressively more humic (13.8% LOI) A1h horizon soil, where excrements of soil invertebrate mesofauna become increasingly more organic in character (from organo-mineral to organic). Plant material – roots and leaf litter also occur more frequently – the surface litter layer is labelled (L). The original topsoil can be classed as a laminated mull horizon (Barrat, 1964), where there is a laminated highly humic Ah/Litter mull horizon. Burrow mixing from this surface horizon into the more minerogenic A1h horizon is evident. Another turf in the sequence records a LOI of 21.2% (Macphail and Crowther, 2012). Scale bar=10mm.
(b)
As Plate XIa, photomicrograph of face-to-face turf layers. The lower turf layer – turf 1 (T1) is right way up, whereas turf 2 (T2) is inverted. Turf 2 is a ‘laminated mull’, composed of poorly decomposed litter layers (a and c) and bioworked humified sandy lenses (b and d). Such turf is typical of poorly-drained grassland soils/grazing land. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(c)
Spitalfields Hospital, City of London, UK. Digital flatbed scan of Medieval floor deposits composed of microlaminated, alternating brown brickearth-rich soil and dark ash and charcoal-rich laminae (see text for details) (Goldberg and Macphail, 2006, fig 11.15). Cyclical activity is recorded at this medieval hospital, with ‘tracking-in’ of soil from outside, and brickearth clay surfaces within the structure. There has also been other important internal trample/activities leading to the formation of laminae rich in fine debris from hearths and ovens. Whether trample sensu stricto or silting through a plank floor is responsible for such fine deposition has yet to be decided (see Fig 10.6). Scale bar=10mm.
(d)
Stanford Wharf, Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, on the River Thames estuary; Romano-British round house at this salt working site. Digital flatbed scan of resin-impregnated block (M1151B); a vertical monolith through the round house hearth and underlying soil-sediments in a coastal marine wetland environment. Contexts 1599 (muddy anthropogenic alluvium), 1597 (possible waterlaid and trampled anthropic brickearth layer), 1598 and 1595 (variously heated brickearth plastered hearth constructional layers), 1593 and 1593 lower (loose, strongly burned sands, brickearth, with white nodules and other phytolith-rich fuel ash debris) and 1485 (thin layer of charred plant material; see Fig 11.2). Scale bar=20mm.
(e)
Borduşani-Popină, Borcea River, Romania (near River Danube); a Chalcolithic Gumelniţa culture (~4500 cal BC) tell site. Photomicrograph of thin section M8B, with Layers L3-L5. Layer 3: biologically worked and partially homogenised layer of mud brick and middening debris – an open area; Layer 4: thin (4mm) layer of humic stained material, with humified plant material organs(?) and yellowish orange amorphous cess, embedding leached bone, humified and fine charred organic matter but which is non-autofluorescent under blue light, with 1.6mm size coprolite (records latrine waste disposal episode or drainage from latrine, possibly in a passage way); Layer 5: calcitic silty soil (with plant tempering – not shown) – base of mud brick floor. (SEM/EDS analysis; Cess: 17.4-17.8% P, 0.0-0.36% S, 38.3-39.2% Ca, 1.14-1.49% Fe; ‘Ca-P-Fe’: 12.1% P, 10.1% Ca, 21.1% Fe; Coprolitic bone: 17.5% P, 0.0-0.33% S, 39.5-39.8% Ca, 0.0-0.53% Mn, 3.35% Fe). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(f)
As Plate XIe, photomicrograph of thin section M18B, with Layers L1 (Context 30053) and L2 (Context 30052-brown). L1: compact mud brick fragments with fine anthropogenic inclusions and fine mottling (probable Fe-P) - ground raising deposit of mudbrick deposits with weak cess staining and possible mottling from overlying stabling(?) layers; L2: compact and mainly very finely microlaminated weakly humic silts, with very abundant calcitic dung spherulites, and rare examples of layered amorphous dung (4mm and 1mm thick fragmented layer – as illustrated). Overall, bulk analysis found a weakly humic and strongly phosphate-enriched context (2.49% LOI and 5.27 mg g-1 P; 0.527%P). This appears to be an animal (sheep/goats) stabling area, with possible traces of cattle dung (layered humified organic matter) – alternatively ‘floors’ could have been plastered with a series of dung-rich silts (C. Haită, pers. comm.). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm. (see also Plate XVg)
(g)
As Plate XIe, photomicrograph of M10A, ashed dung fragment found within mud brick. Layered character may suggest this dung is of cattle, rather than sheep/goat origin. Morphology of poorly digested leaves (?) and unburnt relict traces of amorphous organic matter are preserved in places. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar is 200µm.
(h)
Ramon Crater, Mizpe Ramon, Negev Desert, Israel (see Fig 10.3); Atzmaut rock shelter at the entrance to Ramon Crater. Photomicrograph of Early Bronze Age levels composed of unburned but humified organic and horizontally layered ‘compressed dung’ (herding floor crust); individual pellets cannot be discerned and birefringent plant fragments (cellulose) are rare, indicating humification. Deposits are less organic (13.7-14.0% LOI) but more phosphate rich (4.32-7.17 mg g-1 phosphate-P) compared to recent dung deposits here and at Ha Roa, for example (see Fig 10.2). Note abundant ca. 10-20µm-size calcitic ‘dung’ spherulites within the amorphous organic matter, and their typical optical cross. When totally oxidised, this dung layer will become mainly characterised by such dung spherulite concentrations. Crossed polarised light (XPL). Scale bar=100µm.
Plate XII
(a)
Lyminge, Thanet, Kent, UK; example of soil attached to Saxon iron plough coulter found in base of Saxon grubenhauss (~560-660 AD; SFB 1; Thomas, 2010) (see Fig 11.8). Digital flatbed scan of thin section sample B2 (Blade area) composed of chalk and chalky soil, with, at the top, the ferruginised iron corrosion layer (which adhered to the iron coulter). The thin corrosion layer that is in the thin section soil sample appears to be composed of iron-replaced plant material, probably wood, including knot wood (e.g. Fe wood; see Fig 11.9). There are also ferruginous burrow fills and major iron void hypocoatings also testify to the movement of iron into this rare example of primary SFB fill. (The fill above the coulter and ‘plank floor’, which was not studied here, is reportedly a typical tertiary fill soil; Maslin, 2015). Scale bar=10mm.
(b)
As Plate XIIa, photomicrograph of chalky soil (primary SFB fill) below coulter and hypothetical wooden plank floor. Fine soil includes fungal bodies (vesicular arbuscular mycorrihizae?) perhaps associated with likely dung residues – amorphous organic matter staining, and as found in manured plough soils such as at Butser Ancient Farm. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
(c)
Brougham Castle, Penrith, Cumbria, UK; Roman road network site (by Brocuvum Roman fort) with Bronze Age(?) ‘soil’ below constructed Roman road (E. Huckerby, pers. comm.). Photomicrograph of road silts in thin section M1079 (see Fig 11.10), detailing an example of iron and phosphate-stained silty clay void infillings which were studied by EDS (8.20-20.2% Si, 8.52-15.5% Al, 4.28-31.6% Fe, 1.81-8.12% P). Possible very fine plant fragment residues and 0.57% S in one assay indicate organic matter/dung(?) preservation, consistent with traffic including stock and draft animals. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(d)
Södra Sallerup (Malmö, Scania, South Sweden); Iron Age trackway with samples from wheel rut and roadbed between wheel ruts (Table 11.4). Photomicrograph of MA1317, roadbed soil, which is composed of moderately weakly humic, poorly sorted sands and silts with finely fragmented charcoal, iron staining and very abundant void infills of reddish brown dusty clay. There could be an association, with phosphate enrichment, this type of reddish brown clay deposition and animal traffic (LOI=3.4-4.1%, P2O5=2770-3410 ppm). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=250µm.
(e)
Colour Fig. 11.8: Whitefriars, Canterbury, Kent; Late Saxon (AD 850-1060; Alison Hicks, pers. comm.) Eastern Lane section (see Fig 11.15). Photomicrograph of layered organic matter and phosphate-stained Saxon road silts, rich in burnt brickearth, charcoal, phytoliths and ashes from cereal processing waste and showing brown iron-phosphate staining indicative of probable inputs of animal/human faecal waste; these road silts are also enriched in heavy metals Pb and Zn. The concentration of microartefacts, relatively high organic matter content, strong enrichment in phosphate and heavy metals, and very strongly enhanced magnetic susceptibility (Fig 11.5) all easily differentiate these urban road deposits from ones with a ‘rural’ signature (see Plates XIIe-d). Oblique incident light (OIL). Scale bar=1mm.
(f)
Colour Fig 11.9: Raunds, Nene River Valley, Northamptonshire, UK; Early Bronze Age Turf Mound (2470-2300 cal BC; (Harding and Healy, 2011). Photomicrograph of barrow mound soil; dark coloured fine soil with residual organic matter content of turf (LOI=4.2-10.2%), many reddish clay void coatings and infills including finely laminated example (arrow). The presence of so many textural pedofeatures in turf is anomalous – clay coatings are normally found in subsoil Bt horizons. The soil microfabric may be in part the effect of stock trampling and soil poaching (P=1380ppm) (cf. Plates XIId). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(g)
As Plate XIIf, another area of the thin section shows dark, relatively humic turf soil and, above, a coarse void infill of brown clayey soil. The latter is a post-depositional feature resulting from Saxon and medieval alluvial burial of the site – which was then ploughed. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(h)
As Plate XIIf, Early Bronze Age (round) Barrow 1 (2140-1800 cal BC). Photomicrograph of buried A&B horizon detailing another example of anomalous reddish microlaminated clay void infills as a possible additional example of pedofeature formation from the stocking of animals (LOI=6.2-7.1; P=1390-1700ppm). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
Plate XIII
(a)
Rørkoll nordre, Stokke kommune, Vestfold, Norway (E18 project Lok 95); Early Bronze Age ring ditch fills. Digital flatbed scan of M2950027B; Layer 6 (L6): primary ditch fill composed of subsoil Bhs horizon sands and gravels (with burrow-mixed soil from Layer 5); Layer 5 (L5) charred byre waste fill (spring cleaning?; see Plate XIIIb); Layer 7 (L7) minerogenic sand and gravel layer recording (winter?) ‘silting’. Scale bar=10mm.
(b)
As Plate XIIIa, photomicrograph of M2950027B, Early Bronze Age ring ditch fill Layer 5; yellowish brown raw humus mixed with blackish charred byre waste including charred straw sections (SS) and straw fragments (SF), which can also be embedded in reddish iron-phosphate (red arrows); fungal sclerotia are present (sc). Stained tree bud fragments were also present, suggesting foddering also included woody browse. EDS studies of iron staining found an example of: mean 44.4% Fe [max 70.4% Fe], and mean 1.12% P [max 1.77% P]. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar =1mm.
(c)
West Stow Anglo-Saxon Village, near Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, UK; pig husbandry experiment (see Fig 11.20). Photomicrograph of surface crust in small enclosure (see Fig 11.21), showing horizontally oriented plant fibres in sands; fibres are the faecal remains of the pigs’ cereal husk-rich diet. This layer is the most humic and phosphate-rich in this experiment. SEM/EDS studies of the faecal plant remains found them to be iron-phosphate stained (mean 4.33%P, 2.10% S, 5.05% Ca, 8.91% Fe; n=8); the presence of S is related to organic matter. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(d)
As Plate IIIc, photomicrograph of soil below crust. Example of yellowish, isotropic nodular infill in sands, mainly composed of Fe-P-Ca (mean 24.9-28.4%Fe, 7.73-7.68% P, 2.47-4.90% Ca; 0-52%Zn and 0-26%Cu can also be present). It can be suggested that this formed due to down-profile movement of phosphate associated with pig stocking here. However, such Fe-P-Ca nodules are common on archaeological sites, and are often secondary features associated with phosphate deposition in general and not specific to pig land use. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
(e)
Stanford Wharf, Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, on the River Thames estuary (see Fig 11.25); excavation profile through Romano-British redhill deposits and underlying sediments. Simplified sequence is formed of: 6022b – slaked and truncated early Holocene (Neolithic) soil formed in brickearth geology, 6022a – muddy marine alluvium containing eroded fragments of Holocene soil, 6241 – anthropogenic soil with slaking history and burrow mixing with overlying Redhill (also influenced by inwashed reddish clays), 6238 – trampled occupation surface with post-depositional mixing from Redhill above. Redhill is made up of burnt (rubefied) estuarine sediments which had been used to provide brine for salt processing (briquetage fragments also occur). Coastal plants had also been used as a low temperature fuel. (Photo kindly supplied by Chris Carey and Oxford Archaeology).
(f)
As Plate XIIIe, photomicrograph of M1366B2 (Context 6379); a burned fragment of generally iron-poor ripened marine sediment, showing original probable algal layers (arrows) and rooting (r); sediment was accidentally gathered along with rooting wetland plant fuel, which then became burnt along with associated plant fuel. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(g)
As Plate XIIIf, under oblique incident light (OIL) showing low temperature rubefied sediment including iron-replaced probable algal layers. Scale bar=1mm. Plate XIV
(a)
Marco Gonzalez, Ambergris Caye, Belize (Maya settlement; Graham et al., 2015): field photo of Op 13-1 (Str 14), east face, showing monolith samples 1-4 and MG Contexts: MG 359 (‘Maya dark earth’); MG 364, 367, 369 and 371 (remains of weathering lime floors and salt processing residues and burrow-mixed ‘Maya dark earth’; MG 374 and 377 (mainly intact lime floors and ash layers of salt processing origin); MG 382 (lime floors and trample, sealing cached Early Classic basal-flange bowls – see fragments on the board by the ladder); MG 383 (ash and fine bone-rich colluvium). On the west face, monoliths 5 and 7 sampled a lateral example of salt processing layers/floors (MG 377); monolith 6 sampled MG 383 to a depth of -0.230m asl.
(b)
Marco Gonzalez, Ambergris Caye, Belize (Maya settlement). Digital flatbed scan of thin section M3B (Str 14, Op 13-1; west face; see Plate XIVa). Here a Late Classic heated (weakly rubefied) lime plaster floor is overlain by chaotic dump of coarse limestone clasts (L), charcoal (fuel residues) and pink coloured plaster and sediment fragments, including isotropic sediments containing sponge spicules. The floor also seals a loose deposit that includes a sediment-coated Coconut Walk ware potsherd (P). Energy dispersive X-Ray spectrometry (EDS) studies were carried out on pot examples and the plaster floor (EDS) (Macphail et al., Accepted/2016). Scale bar=10mm.
(c)
As Plate XIVa, digital flatbed scan of M2A (Str 14, Op 13-1; west face; uppermost MG 364); weathering lime plaster floor fragments (LF) in ‘Maya dark earth’ – here shown as a very broad burrow fill of dark soil composed of thin and broad organo-mineral excrements from invertebrate soil mesofauna activity (Macphail et al., Accepted/2016). Note use of potsherd as temper in floor plaster (arrow). Scale bar=10mm.
(d)
As Plate XIVb. Photomicrograph of M3A; isotropic sediment-coated (sc) Late Classic Coconut Walk ware potsherd tempered with quartz sand (qtz); quartz sand is not natural to the site. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(e)
As Plate XIVc, photomicrograph of isotropic coating to pottery fragment in thin section MG-M3A. Coconut Walk ware pot (Pot) is quartz sand-tempered (qtz). The sediment coating is siliceous and includes sponge spicules (sp) and is of exactly the same character as the burnt clay clasts present in the chaotic dumps of salt working waste. This sediment is strongly attached and is regarded as recording the sea water-sediment mixture (brine concentration) which was heated to produce salt. Background debris is a loose calcitic coating (cc) attached the isotropic coating (arrows) (see Fig 11.32). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=250µm.
(f)
Heimdaljordet (Heimdal), Sandefjord, Vestfold, Norway; Viking Age coastal settlement. Photomicrograph of M15196B (14031, Section 14750); Layer 6 with 11.1% LOI, and a concentration of charred cereal grains – mainly barley (N. Hammers, pers. comm.). Cross-section through barley grain (long sections are also present in the thin section). Vesicular siliceous and char are also present in the layer. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(g)
Freeschool Lane, Leicester, UK; Late Roman dark earth below collapsed Roman wall. Photomicrograph of lead droplet within an ash-rich nodule (Context 6450A; bulk analysis found 2560 µg g-1 Pb; 0.256% Pb). Zones identified as: 1 – pure lead, 2- red lead oxide and 3 – lead carbonate (T. Rehren, pers. comm.), surrounded by ashes (a). EDS: Red lead oxide: 92.8% Pb (100% PbO); Lead carbonate: 86.3% Pb, 5.67% Ca, 7.23% P; Surrounding ashes: 43.0% Pb, 10.6% Ca, 7.83% P). Oblique incident light (OIL). Scale bar=1mm. Plate XV
(a)
Bjørnstad sondre, Sarpsborg, Østfold, Norway; Iron Age (430-540 cal. AD) inhumation “Bjørnstad 9”. Photomicrograph of wooden coffin floor remains (see Figs 11.35-11.37) showing concentration of vivianite crystals. This vivianite and amorphous probable iron phosphate are likely derived from the decomposed body. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=200µm.
(b)
Heimdaljordet (Heimdal), Viking coastal settlement near Gokstad Ship Burial Mound, Sandefjord, Vestfold, Norway; Viking Age boat grave (see Fig 11.22). Photomicrograph of M7652 (horizontal sample through boat grave and pelvic region of body stain), with pale yellow amorphous calcium-phosphate relict of faecal material within gut (cf ‘cess’ and human coprolites); weathered carbonate hydroxyapatite? (area 1 in Fig 11.36). Note also patchy iron staining as found during SEM/EDS studies. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=0.5mm.
(c)
Oxley Park, Milton Keynes, UK; Iron Age settlement including this excarnation post hole fill. Photomicrograph of M15042, focusing on a major concentration of coarse and fine fragmented bone and suggested neonatal human tooth (R. Coard and A. Chamberlain, pers. comm). There is iron-stained bone (1), bone fragments (2) and large human tooth (3). Bone is ‘rounded’ and shows edges with a high autofluorescence under blue light (BL); such features are typical of bone in bird guano. The layer is particularly rich in bulk measured phosphate (1.08%P). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(d)
Butser Ancient Farm, Hampshire, UK; Iron Age and Romano-British experimental settlement; see Plate If). Field photograph of reconstructed Moel-y-Gar roundhouse which had been used stabling animals during 1977-1990, and which had been burnt down as an experiment. This sample collected the stabling floor crust (SCr) and earth floor constructed over the buried in situ soil (see Plate Xe). The ashed straw (AS) remains of the thatched roof were collected as a separate reference thin section sample.
(e)
‘Post Office Middle’, City of London, UK. Field photograph of London’s dark earth in the late 1970’s. Typical sequence of yellowish brown stratified Roman levels (early 2nd century Antonine constructions) below a thick, seemingly homogenous layer of dark earth, diffusing upwards into medieval deposits and graveyard.
(f)
London Guildhall (GYE), London. Field photo example of post Ca. 360 AD and pre-11th century AD dark earth (DE) which is present over Roman Amphitheatre lime mortar floors (AF). At the base of the dark earth the presence of aquatic mollusks testifies to flooding of the floor after the Roman arena drainage system broke down. Only small root holes from the dark earth penetrate the arena floor, implying that only small shrubs such as Sambucus were present (seeds found in dark earth); there is no evidence that London was transformed into wildwood and stratigraphy affected by the growth of large mature trees.
(g)
Courages Brewery site, Southwark, London; photomicrograph of disused floor (see Fig 12.1). Here there is an example of decalcifying and disaggregating sand-tempered lime plaster (arrows) releasing medium sand (of original Thames river sand origin) and allowing the biological mixing of calcium carbonate and humic soil to form a calcareous brown earth – dark earth. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(h)
London Guildhall (GYE), London; example of post Ca. 360 AD and pre-11th century AD dark earth which is present over Roman Amphitheatre floors. Photomicrograph of typical mature dark earth soil, which is a homogeneous total biological microfabric that was humic (currently ~4.0% LOI) and very fine charcoal-rich. Relict inclusions are: lime plaster (p), bone (b) and an earthworm granule (gr – biocalcite) associated with the homogenisation process; glauconite (g) is a frequent sand-size part of the coarse fraction. Post depositional features are a channel infill of sparitic calcite (ca) and vivianite (v). The latter records phosphate contamination of dark earth from overlying deposits that are the result of early medieval occupation (see Plate XVIb-c). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
Plate XVI
(a)
Staples Gardens, Winchester; Pre-Roman, Roman, Saxon and medieval site. Photomicrograph of M311A (5059), latest Roman dark earth (AD 350/75-400/500), showing humic burrowed and excremental microfabric, with ash residues, dung traces and iron-stained, probable coprolitic bone (CB), as evidence of renewed occupation and middening. The site archaeologically recorded an increase in population and activity compared to Middle Roman times for example (AD 130/50-270) (Biddulph and Brown, 2011). This is consistent with increases in humic matter, phosphate and magnetic susceptibility compared to earlier formed dark earth (Latest Roman dark earth: 4.31%, LOI, 7.80 mg-g P, 12.7% 𝜒conv; earlier-formed dark earth: 2.69%, LOI, 5.46 mg-g P, 8.69% 𝜒conv (Macphail, 2010b). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(b)
As Plates XVf andXVh, photomicrograph of M1039, dark earth above amphitheatre floor. Many large voids are partially infilled with amorphous iron phosphate, and associated vivianite (e.g. Fe3(PO4)2 8H2O). The presence of vivianite was confirmed by microFTIR at Boston University by Goldberg and Macphail. These phosphate features record contamination of dark earth by phosphate dating to the early medieval occupation of the site from ca. AD 1060. Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=250µm.
(c)
London Guildhall (GYE), London; dark earth (DE) bulk sample studies by J. Crowther. Schematic diagram illustrating increases in heavy metals (Cu, Pb, Zn), phosphate (P), magnetic susceptibility (MSconv) and organic matter (LOI), in different dark earth contexts, namely: Primary DE: e.g. humic soil formed in Roman deposits; Secondary DE: e.g. DE formed in Late Roman occupation deposits; and Tertiary DE: Late Roman DE contaminated by Medieval disposal and activities. These data and the presence of amorphous phosphate and vivianite in large voids within dark earth (see Plates XVh and XVIb) identify the effects of post-dark earth activities, for example, phosphate (and heavy metal) contamination, disturbance and mixing by medieval and post-medieval pit digging. Dark earth micromorphology and bulk data therefore requires cautious interpretation.
(d)
Tarquimpol, La Moselle, France; Roman and Late Roman (Late Antique) town (Decempagi), which was located on a major road system. Digital flatbed scan of M4, recording the junction of dark, fine charcoal-rich dark earth and overlying pale brown colluvium (e.g., arrows) that seals the dark earth. Pale clayey soil from this colluvium has been both washed-in and burrowed-mixed downwards. Scale bar=10mm.
(e)
As Plate XVId, photomicrograph of M6, Late Antique dark earth, which includes turf fragment (T) – turf was used in earth-based constructions. The dark earth also includes yellow amorphous phosphate staining, with some nodules embedding vivianite (V). Overall this dark earth is weakly humic (3.03% LOI) with a small concentration of phosphate (4.04 mg g-1 P; 0.404%P); EDS of other phosphate nodules found in dark earth were Ca-P(FeMn) compounds (e.g. 37.0% CaO, 17.4%P2O5</sup>, 2.73FeO, 0.78%MnO). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=1mm.
(f)
As Plate XVId, photomicrograph of M8, post-hole fill within dark earth. Fine charred and humified organic matter staining the fine soil is consistent with an interpretation of dung residues infilling this post hole, which retains a weakly humic and phosphate-enriched character (LOI=3.25%, P=3.99 mg g-1; 0.399%P). Plane polarised light (PPL). Scale bar=100µm. There is no html version of this appendix available yet. Please download the raw file(s) below. If you are familiar with Markdown, please help to convert this file here